Pharmacognosy is the study of natural medicines and biological materials. It encompasses the chemical, biological, and pharmacological aspects of various plant, animal, and microbial materials used in a variety of medical treatments, including herbal and traditional medicines. Pharmacognosy courses explore the chemical compounds found naturally in botanicals and materials of animal, microbial, and mineral origin, as well as the therapeutic uses of these compounds. In a pharmacognosy course, students learn about the physical, biological, and chemical properties of natural medicines and biological materials. Topics usually covered include phytochemistry, the study of chemicals extracted from plants; the analysis of organic, organic-inorganic, and inorganic compounds found in biomedical samples; and the regulatory aspects of medicines. Students also learn about how natural medicines and substances interact with human physiology, how they can be used to treat various diseases, and the history and cultural significance associated with traditional medicines. In addition to gaining an understanding of the fundamentals of pharmacognosy, students typically learn laboratory methods used to identify and characterize natural materials, including spectroscopic, chromatographic, and electrophoretic techniques. They can also learn how to use analytical instruments to measure and analyze the effects of natural materials on human physiology, drug metabolism, and toxicity. Further, students learn how various cultural and geographical factors affect the harvesting of the material and the end product. Courses also cover the use of phytomedicines and other natural products in medical practice, including the potential side effects for certain medical conditions. Pharmacognosy courses provide an in-depth understanding of the many aspects of natural medicines and biological materials. This type of coursework is often offered as part of a pharmacy or medicinal chemistry degree, a graduate program in natural medicines, or as an elective for medical, pharmacy, and botany students.